Khans of Mughulistan (Chaghatayids / Jagatai-ids)
AD 1227 – 1363
Following the death of Chingiz Khan, the
Mongol empire was
effectively divided into four sections, or ulus (inheritances), each
governed by one of the sons of Chingiz. They remained politically united
under the great khan, but their existence established the basis of future
independent Mongol kingdoms. Ogedei was the selected successor to Chingiz,
and was officially proclaimed great khan in 1229. While he and his
successors still controlled the entire empire, they largely concentrated
their attention on Mongolia and
China. The
rest was governed by the other sons of Chingiz. The north-western section
was handed to Jochi and it was Jochi’s son, Batu Khan, who inherited the
westernmost section of this ulu as the
Blue Horde, with Orda
leading the eastern section as the
White Horde
(collectively known as the Golden Horde). Chagatai Khan (the second son)
inherited Mughulistan (or Moghulistan, Moghalistan), while Tolui governed
Persia.
The Chaghatayid khanate of Mughulistan in fact encompassed much wider
territory in its early days. The lands it inherited from the Mongol
empire included what is now northern
Afghanistan
(but which had most recently belonged to the
Ghurid sultanate),
Central Asia,
Kashgaria, Lake Balkhash, and Zhetysu. It was largely divided into two
halves, the ancient region of
Transoxiana to the west
(bordering the Il-Khanate) and the nomadic Mughulistan in the east
(modern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
Uzbekistan, and
eastern areas of Mongolia and
China). This
region should not be confused with the
Mughal empire of India
which was founded in the sixteenth century.
Chaghatayid territory included various established populations, some
long-established. It gradually absorbed them to create two main ethic
layers and perhaps three distinctions to its population. This included
the pre-Chaghatayid Turkic
tribes who remained within the khanate’s territory, having migrated
there between the eleventh to fifteenth centuries (they included Turks
specifically to cover arrivals up to the thirteenth century, and Chagatais
to include the Mongol tribes who had arrived as part of the Chaghatayid
khanate from the thirteenth century onwards. It also included the
surviving urban populations, especially those of the Ferghana, Khorezm,
and Angren valleys. The people here had been established for millennia,
and included
Indo-Iranians and the
earlier native stock which they had absorbed in the first millennium BC.
In the eighth to tenth centuries AD they had been Islamicised and,
certainly before the twentieth century, most were bilingual, speaking
Iranian and Turkic.
(Information by Peter Kessler, from Mannerheim, Stig Axel Fridolf
Jägerskiöld, from Tamerlane and the symbolism of sovereignty,
Beatrice Forbes Manz (Iranian Studies 21 (1-2), 1988), from Timurids,
The Columbia Encyclopaedia (Sixth Ed, Columbia University), from The
Encyclopaedia of War: Timur (‘the Lame’) (1336-1405), Timothy May, from
The Art of War: Great Commanders of the Ancient and Medieval World:
Tamerlane, Justin Marozzi (Andrew Roberts, Ed, Quercus Military History,
2008), and from External Link:
Encyclopaedia Britannica: Timur.)
1227 – 1244
Chaghatay
/ Jagatai / Chagatai Khan
Son of
Great Khan Chingiz
Khan.
1227
Chagatai makes Almaliq his capital (a remote location in the very east of
his domains, near modern Yining in north-western
China).
He governs a wide swathe of Central Asian territory that reaches from
Transoxiana
in the west over to the edges of Mongolia and contemporary China.
This nineteenth century illustration depicting a Mongol
gur being transported by cart provides a small
sense of the traditional ways which were championed by
Chagatai and his followers
1244
Chagatai’s death leaves the khanate weakened, and dominated by the
Mongol great khans.
They appoint Chaghatayid khans as they please. Although
Transoxiana is considered
part of the khanate’s territories, the governors of the cities there are
appointed directly by the great khan. This subservience to Karakorum lasts
until the accession of Alughu. Although the circumstances are not entirely
clear, it seems that while the Chaghatayids control Turkestan and Transoxiana,
the regions of Aksu, Kashghar, Khotan, Yarkand, and the southern slopes of
the Tian Shan mountain range are hived off. This region later forms a province
which lies to the south of the line of the Tian Shan (and which is now known
as Eastern Turkestan). It appears to be granted to the Dughlat clan as
hereditary chiefs (amirs), creating an increasingly powerful division
which eventually dominates Mughulistan.
1244 – 1246
Qara Hulegu
Grandson. A minor
at accession. First rule.
1244 – 1246
Ebuskun
Widow of Chagatai
and regent. Effectively deposed by Guyuk.
1246 – 1251
Yesu Mongke
/ Möngke Khan
Appointed by
Great Khan Guyuk.
1251
The disinherited Qara Hulegu wins the favour of
Mongol Great Khan
Mongke and is restored to his throne. The displaced Yesu Mongke is exiled
by the great khan to the court of the
Blue Horde, where he
is executed. Unfortunately, Qara Hulegu dies before he can reach his capital.
Instead, his Oirat wife, Orqina Khatun, acts as regent for their young son.
1251 – 1252
Qara Hulegu
Second rule. Died
before reaching his capital.
1252 – 1260
Mubarak Shah
Son. Acceded as a minor and then deposed.
1252 – 1260
Orqina Khatun /
Orghana
Mother and regent.
1260 – 1264
The Mongol empire is
engulfed in two simultaneous civil wars: Hulegu of the
Il-Khanate
and Berke of the Blue Horde
in the west, and Kublai and Ariq-Boke in the east. Both Kublai and Ariq-Boke
are elected great khan in 1260 at two separate khuriltai, with Kublai basing
himself in China
and Ariq-Boke at Karakorum. When Kublai is victorious in 1264, he retains China
as his main base, implying (or perhaps establishing) it as the most important
Mongol possession. Alughu is appointed to take control of the Chaghatayid
khanate by Ariq-Boke, deposing Orqina Khatun in the process.
1260 – 1266
Alughu
Grandson of Chagatai.
1262
After several battles between Alughu, who has sided with Kublai Khan, and Orqina
and one Masud Beg, who are fighting on the side of Ariq-Boke, the latter arranges
peace negotiations between the two sides. Alughu then takes advantage of the
unstable situation by revolting against Ariq-Boke’s rule of the west and gaining
the allegiance of the governors of
Transoxiana. He also
ends up marrying Orqina, and Masud Beg is appointed viceroy of Central Asia,
probably with a seat in Transoxiana as the very governor that Alughu needs to
support him.
1266
Mubarak
Shah
Restored following death of step-father. Converted to
Islam.
1266
When the defeated Ariq-Boke dies just two years after losing his struggle
for the great khanship, his side of the struggle against Kublai Khan is
continued by Kaidu. As khan of the Chaghatayids, Mubarak’s accession has
been without the approval of Kublai Khan, who now dominates the
Mongol empire. His
favourite for the post is Baraq, and the Chaghatayid army is soon won over.
Mubarak is exiled and dies in 1276 while fighting in
Il-Khanate
Persia.
1266 – 1271
Baraq
/ Ghiyath ad Dîn
Son of Yesünto’a, and great-grandson of Chagatai.
1267 – 1268/69
Baraq repudiates the overlordship of Kublai Khan and ravages Khotan. The
size of his standing army makes a military intervention by Kublai impossible,
so in 1268 he secures a peaceful agreement with Baraq so that the problem
presented by Kaidu can be faced. That problem advances on Baraq, but the
khan sets a trap that inflicts defeat on Kaidu’s forces on the banks of the
Jaxartes. A second battle near Khujand sees Kaidu the victor while he is
allied with Mengu-Timur of the
Blue Horde. He is then
able to ravage
Transoxiana, and Baraq flees first to
Samarkand and then
Bukhara, plundering
cities along the way as he rebuilds his forces.
An alarmed Kaidu agrees a temporary truce between the two, in 1269 (although
1267 is proposed as an alternate date). Baraq retains control of two-thirds
of Transoxiana while Kaidu and Mengu-Timur control the rest as the sometimes
fragile peace continues. Baraq dies in 1271 following an ill-fated attack on
the Il-Khanate,
and Kaidu adopts a dominant position over the Chaghatayids, appointing his
own puppet khans for the rest of his life.
c.1266? – 1301
Kaidu / Khaidu
Grandson of Ogedei Khan. De facto khan.
1271 – 1272
Negubey / Negübei
Puppet khan. Rebelled, fled, and killed.
1272 – 1282
Buqa / Toqa Temur
Puppet khan. Ineffectual ruler replaced by Du’a.
c.1282 – 1301
Du’a / Duwa
Son of Baraq. Became sole khan (1301).
1294
With the death of Kublai Khan, the
Yuan dynasty
survives under his successor, but the
Mongol empire effectively
ceases to exist. There are no further khakhans (great khans), and command of the
empire’s territory is now permanently divided into four distinct and fully
independent kingdoms: the Golden Horde (made up of the
Blue Horde
and White Horde), the
Il-Khanate,
Mughulistan, and Yuan China.
1301 – 1306
Du’a
/ Duwa
Sole ruler of the khanate following his father’s death.
1301
Thanks to Kaidu’s support of the opposing faction in the
White Horde
dynastic conflict, Buyan has won support both from
Great Khan Temur
and Mahmud Ghazan of the
Il-Khanate.
Temur now organises a response against Kaidu, ending with the latter’s
defeat at the bloody Battle of the River Zawkhan. Kaidu dies shortly
afterwards.
1301 – 1306
Chapar
Son of Kaidu. Supporter of Du’a and then opponent.
Defeated.
1302
The accession of Buyan of the
White Horde is far
from universally accepted by his own relatives. Led by his cousin, Kobluk,
they win support from Du’a. Buyan
fights them on several occasions and seeks help from Toqta of the
Blue Horde as the
senior khan of the Golden Horde. Toqta warns off the Chaghatayids, and supplies
military help. In the end, Buyan is able to defeat his opponents and emerge
victorious.
The Chaghatayids made peace with Temur Khan, the
great khan of the Mongol empire, to end the constant
bickering between the Mongol khanates
1304
The Chaghatayids under Du’a and Chapar, son of Kaidu, the
Golden Horde under Toqta, and
the Il-Khanate
under Mahmud Ghazan negotiate peace with Temur Khan so that trade and diplomatic
relations are not harmed by constant bickering and fighting. The
Yuan emperor is also accepted
as the nominal overlord of the three junior
Mongol states. As is
customary (but not always observed in recent times), Temur designates Öljeytu
as the new Il-Khan. Soon afterwards, the former allies Du’a and Chapar fall
out over the territory they control within Mughulistan, so Temur backs the
rightful ruler, Du’a, and sends a large army into the region in 1306, forcing
Chapar to surrender.
1306 – 1308
Konchek
/ Könchek
Son of Du’a. Died.
1308 – 1309
Taliqu
From a subsidiary line of descent. Overthrown.
1308 – 1309
The rebellious Chapar and his key supporters in Mughulistan appear before
the Yuan emperor, Qayshan,
to submit to him, ending the threat posed by them to stability in the Yuan
empire. In the same year, 1309, Taliqu’s attempt to convert the Chaghatayids
to Islam
rebound. He is already unpopular as he is not a descendant of Du’a, and this
final straw sees him overthrown and Kebek elected in his place. Kebek and
his new-found supporters (who have switched from Taliqu) go on to defeat the
sons of Kaidu in battle.
1309
Kebek
Son of Du’a. First rule.
Abdicated following election of Esen Buqa.
1309 – c.1320
Esen Buqa
Brother. Recognised in favour of Kebek. Died.
c.1320 – 1326
Kebek
Re-elected following his brother’s death.
1326
Eljigedey
Brother. Overthrown by Du’a Temur.
1326?
Du’a Temur
Brother. Deposed by Tarmashirin.
1326
In the merry-go-round of familial depositions, Du’a is
generally though to hold power only for a year before being overthrown by
another brother, Tarmashirin. However the History of Yuan shows him
remaining in power in 1330, referring to a letter sent to the
Yuan court
by Tarmashirin himself in that year to confirm his own succession.
1326? – 1334
Tarmashirin
Ala ad Din
Brother. Converted to
Islam. Deposed.
1328 – 1329
During
the successful campaign by El Temür and Jayaatu Khan to capture the
Yuan throne, Qoshila Qutuqtu
begins his own campaign against them in
Mongolia. He enters
Mongolia from the Tarbagatai region of the Khangai Mountains with support
from Eljigedey and Du’a Temur. The nobles of Mongolia also support him, so
he has himself declared emperor on 27 February at a location to the north
of Karakorum. Jayaatu Khan recognises that he has been defeated and abdicates.
1329
Ruling
as Khutughtu Khan, Qoshila accepts Jayaatu Khan as his heir and the two meet
at a banquet. The new khan is busy filling
Yuan positions with his own
people so it seems likely that it is El Temür who is responsible for his
unexpected death just four days after the banquet, probably because he fears
losing his own power and influence to other
Mongols and Chaghatayids.
Now Jayaatu Khan is able to resume his position on the throne after the
briefest of interludes.
1334
Tarmashirin is deposed. Taking flight, he is killed by
princes of the eastern Chaghatayids while near
Samarkand. The
khanate becomes increasingly unstable under his successors.
1334
Buzan
Son of Du’a
Temur. Overthrown.
1334 – 1338
Changshi
Grandson of Du’a.
Murdered by Yesun Temur.
1335
Abu
Said Ala ad Dunya wa dDin is the last of the
Il-Khans
to be descended from Hulegu, the first Il-Khan ruler in 1256. His death in 1335
(or 1336) weakens the khanate, but the same date is sometimes used to mark the
birth of a Turkic-Mongol by the name
of Tîmûr-i Lang (Tamerlane). This Chaghatayid prince will one day attempt to
reform the Mongol empire as a
Timurid
possession, although his birth most likely takes place in the late 1320s.
c.1338 – 1342
Yesun Temur
Brother. Overthrown.
c.1342
‘Ali
Sultan
Descendant of Ögedei Khan. First Ögedeid since Kaidu.
c.1342 – 1343
Muhammad
ibn Pulad
Great-great-grandson of Baraq.
1343 – 1346
Qazan
Khan ibn Yasaur
Son of Yasa’ur, a price who revolted in the 1310s. Killed.
1346
Qazan
is killed by Qazaghan, a tribal chieftain. His death marks the end of effective
Chaghatayid control of Transoxiana.
Instead local Turko-Mongol tribes tribes
rise to prominence and establish a loose coalition of power under the dominance
of Qazaghan. His control of the region is given a semblance of legitimacy when
he raises Danishmendji, a member of the
Mongol nobility, to the
figurehead throne. Jani Beg of the
Blue Horde takes the
opportunity to achieve dominance over the Chaghatayids.
Shown here are the two sides of a Chaghatayid dinar which was issued during the
reign of Muhammad ibn Pulad
1346 – 1348
Danishmendji
An Ögedeid. Puppet
of Qazaghan and executed by him.
1348 – 1358
Buyan Quli
Grandson of Du’a. Puppet
of Qazaghan. Killed by his successor.
1357 – 1359
With the
assassination of Jani Beg, the political cohesion of the
Golden Horde begins to
disintegrate. Berdi Beg is probably behind Jani Beg’s death, and his reign as
khan is not universally accepted. The khanate goes from being able to claim
titular dominance over the three ulus (Blue Horde,
White Horde, and Chaghatayids)
and actual dominance over the
Rus of
Moscow
to internecine warfare and the possibility of complete dissolution. Under
the dominance of the Qara’unas in
Transoxiana the
Chaghatayids throw out his administrators to reassert ‘their’ independence.
Soon afterwards, the Qara’unas are overthrown by Buyan Suldus and his
allies, and the Chaghatayids find themselves with a new overlord.
1359
Shah Temur
Executed by Buyan Suldus in
Transoxiana.
1359 – 1363
Tughlugh Temur
Khan in the east from c.1347. Now supreme independent
khan.
1363
Tughlugh Temur’s attempts to quell the tribes of Transoxiana are eventually
unsuccessful, despite two invasions of the region. His death ends
Chaghatayid hopes of restoring control of western Mughulistan. Instead,
two tribal leaders, Amir Husayn (grandson of the Qazaghan who had killed
Qazan in 1346) and Tîmûr-i Lang contest for control of Transoxiana. The
latter is ultimately successful, taking Transoxiana and
Khorasan in the
name of the khanate, but effectively forming his own
Timurid khanate. He places a figurehead
Mongol on the
western Chaghatayid throne to legitimise his rule while he governs from
behind the throne as amir. With the west lost, Ilyas Khoja secures
command of the east.
Although the original Chaghatayid khanate has been ripped apart by Timur,
the eastern Chaghatayids still rule Mughulistan proper. This is viewed as a
continuation of the original khanate despite the massive loss of territory,
and its rulers are generally descendants of Chagatai Khan himself. They rule
a very traditional Mongol state, a nomadic tribal confederacy that is made
up of several clans. Known also as the Moghul khanate, this is the origin of
the name Mughulistan, which can still be applied to a large swathe of
Central Asian territory today.
1388
With the break in rule of the descendants of Kublai Khan, and the dramatic
reduction in
Mongol power over the past two decades, the authority of the great khan
has been gravely damaged. One of the former generals of Togus-Temur breaks
away and forms his own small khanate. Gunashiri is a descendant of Chagatai
Khan of the Chaghatayids, and the small state he forms is called Qara Del,
which is centred in Hami (modern Kumul in Xinjiang Province).
1402
The death of Sultan Mahmud in
Transoxiana
marks the end of the puppet western Chaghatayid khans there. In Mughulistan,
the eastern khans continue to be appointed, perhaps dominated by the
Timurids.
Many of them are entirely unknown, although one of them, Satuk Khan,
attempts to establish the independence of Mughulistan, without success.
The Chaghatayids survive as a minor state until they are annexed by the
Chinese Qin
dynasty in the eighteenth century.
Timur effectively recreated the ancient Persian empire
through his various conquests over the course of almost
forty years, subduing many competing clans and khanates
which would begin competing again after his death (click
or tap on map to view full sized)
1405
After Timur’s death, none of the
Timurid
royalty accepts his successor. Timur’s viceroy in
Ferghana asserts
his own independence and rules the eastern part of the empire from
Samarkand as if
he is the new ruler of the entire empire. Technically, this half of the
empire is also known as Greater Khorasan, but the regional name of
Transoxiana is usually used to distinguish the two Timurid divisions. In
time, within a century of so, much of it falls under the control of the
newly-created Shaibanid
empire.
1918 – 1921
A
reorganisation of Central Asian
Soviet-controlled
states along ethnic lines means the end of the khanate of
Khiva, the Turkestan
Krai, and the emirate of
Bukhara (the
latter being ousted by the Tashkent Soviet in 1920). They are merged into
the newly-formed ‘Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic’, which is
formed as a self-governing entity of the early Soviet Union. However, in the
same year, the Islamic Council and the Council of Intelligentsia declare the
rival ‘Turkestan Autonomous Republic’, and set about fighting against the
Bolshevik forces who start closing down mosques and persecuting Muslim clergy
as part of their secularisation campaign.
1921 – 1924
The Turkestan Autonomous Republic has gradually lost ground
to the Bolsheviks. The Bolsheviks themselves have been divided into two groups
over the region’s future, but the idea of a
pan-Turkic state is jettisoned in place
of several smaller states. In 1924 the Turkestan ASSR is divided into the
Uzbek SSR, the
Turkmen SSR, the
Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast (Kyrgyzstan), and the Karakalpak Autonomous
Oblast (modern Karakalpakstan, an autonomous republic of Uzbekistan).
Initially, the Tajik ASSR is also adjoined to the Uzbek state.
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Publish date : 2015-07-02 14:46:00
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